An Exploration of the Government During the Ming Dynasty
by: Erta Kurti 8-5
The Beginning of the Ming Dynasty
The last 40 years of the Yuan Dynasty were plagued by famines, droughts, flooding of the Yellow River, a bubonic plague pandemic and a plethora of other natural disasters. The people interpreted these occurrences as indicators that the Yuan had lost the Mandate of Heaven- leading to approximately 20 years of rebellion, chaos and disorder. One army was able to gain power and conquer the region, defeating the weakened Yuan dynasty and establishing a new empire. The head of this army was Zhu Yuanzhang, who founded the Ming Dynasty in 1368. The Ming Dynasty would continue to exist for 300 years until 1644, becoming a period of time defined by its government- a factor that determined the success of the entire empire in multiple areas of life.
What Zhu Yuanzhang was believed to actually look like (not a portrait that he authorized/approved of)
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Zhu Yuanzhang: The emperor (1368-1398)Anti-Eunuchs: Zhu Yuanzhang wanted for the eunuchs to have no ruling power (believing that they were dangerous). However, the eunuchs regained power overtime and went on to rule alongside Confucian officials.
Pro the Peasants: He wanted agriculture to be the source of wealth for the empire. He implemented work projects and attempted to distribute land to peasants. His wish was that peasants would be able to live in "self-supporting agricultural communities", and he forced many (especially merchants) to settle in other areas to fulfill that wish. Overall, his policies all favored peasants- having been a peasant himself and due to the Confucian standpoint that merchants were "parasitic". During his reign, cultivated land and the population rapidly increased and the peasants were able to prosper as a result of all the policies enacted that supported them. Anti the Merchant Class: Zhu Yuanzhang attempted to weaken the merchant class and forced them to pay high taxes. In addition, a great number of them were relocated per his instructions. However, years after his rule, the merchants would go on to prosper along with industry and trade. Monetary Policy: He was able to issue paper currency. Even so, by 1425, paper currency was only worth a small percentage of the printed value due to inflation. The main currency of the empire became silver and bronze coins Zhu Yuanzhang's Successful Wars: In 1358, Zhu's army conquered Nanjing, an important city that was strategically located. Having control over Nanjing allowed him to also have authority over part of the Yangtze River and the area south of it. Zhu therefore named Nanjing as his capital. In a span of 10 years, he managed to successfully defeat powerful rival armies. In 1368, upon attacking the capital of the Yuan Empire (Beijing), he was also able to gain control of Beijing. In addition, he created an army of 1,000,000 people and ordered the establishment of an expansive navy. As his title, Zhu Yuanzhang adopted "Hongwu" (meaning "Vast Magnificent Military"). |
Power Corrupts and Absolute Power Corrupts Absolutely
The above dictum came to represent Zhu Yuanzhang's style of ruling and the oppressive tactics that he utilized. He became afraid of rebellions and rioting once he made himself Emperor, to the point of supposedly making it a capital offense for any members of his court to criticize him. He fostered an atmosphere of fear through numerous massacres and the murders of tens of thousands of officials and their families by him, lower officials and his secret police. He tortured many and also killed an immense number of concubines. However, in an interesting turn of events, a thunderbolt struck his palace in 1380 and so he ceased the killings for a period of time due to his fear of being punished by Heaven. These repressive methods, while immoral and corrupt, did maintain order and sustained his rule- a span of 30 years. His unethical and ruthless nature could not be completely repressed- for while he was dying in 1398, he ordered his physicians and concubines be put to death. Even so, Zhu Yuanzhang was instrumental in designing a successful bureaucracy that would allow the dynasty to thrive.
The 16 Emperors
1. Ming Taizu / Emperor Hongwu
(Zhu Yuanzhang)
Founder of the Ming Dynasty; once entered a monastery and later a leader of the peasant's uprising army. In 1368, he proclaimed himself emperor in Yingtian (today's Nanjing).
1368 - 1398
2. Ming Huizong
(Zhu Yunwen)
Grandson of Zhu Yuanzhang; Originally, his father Zhu Biao was designated as the heir. He came to the throne because of Zhu Biao's early death.
1399 - 1402
3. Ming Chengzu
(Zhu Di)
The fourth son of Zhu Yuanzhang; He usurped the throne by from the hands of Zhu Yunwen. His reign was said to be the most prosperous period of the Ming Dynasty.
1403 - 1424
4. Ming Renzong
(Zhu Gaochi )
The eldest son of Zhu Di; His reign was short because of his early death. But he was remembered as an innovative emperor.
1425
5. Ming Xuanzong
(Zhu Zhanji)
Son of Emperor Renzong; ruled for ten years and died of illness
1426 - 1435
6. Ming Yingzong
(Zhu Qizhen)
Son of Emperor Xuanzong; He ascended the throne at eight and was later imprisoned by Mongols. After being house arrested for seven years, his launched a coup and regained his second reign.
1436 - 1449,
1457 - 1464
7. Ming Daizong
(Zhu Qiyu)
Younger brother of Yingzong; He was put on the throne after his brother was captured by Mongols.
1450 - 1457
8. Ming Xianzong
(Zhu Jianshen)
Son of Emperor Yingzong; He ascended the throne at 17 and was once infatuated with a consort who was 19 years old than he was.
1465 - 1487
9. Ming Xiaozong
(Zhu Youtang)
Son of Emperor Xianzong; He was the sole perpetually monogamous emperor in the whole of Chinese history.
1488 - 1505
10. Ming Wuzong
(Zhu Houzhao)
The eldest son of Emperor Xiaozong; He was irresponsible and indulged himself in playing with women.
1506 - 1521
11. Ming Shizong
(Zhu Houcong)
Cousin of Emperor Wuzong and nephew of Emperor Xiaozong; He was also infatuated with women as well as Taoist alchemical pursuits.
1522 - 1566
12. Ming Muzong
(Zhu Zaihou)
Son of Emperor Shizong; He was considered as an open-minded emperor since he used to adopt a series of positive policies the reverse the declining situation.
1567 - 1572
13. Ming Shenzong
(Zhu Yijun)
Son of Emperor Muzong; His reign was the longest one among the Ming emperors. He also received Matteo Ricci the first christian missionary.
1573 - 1620
14. Ming Guangzong
(Zhu Changluo)
The eldest son of Shenzong; His reign was less than a half year due to his mysterious death which was probably caused by the so-called red pills.
1620
15. Ming Xizong
(Zhu Youxiao)
The eldest son of Guangzong; He came to the throne at 15 and his reign was controlled by a treacherous court official named Wei Zhongxian.
1621 - 1627
16. Ming Weizong
(Zhu Youjian)
Son of Guangzong and younger brother of Xizong; He reign was thought to hasten the end of the Ming Dynasty. In 1644, he committed suicide in Jingshan Park after Li Zicheng captured Beijing.
1628 - 1644
-The emperors bolded are the ones who ran competent, strong empires that defined the Ming Dynasty (especially Zhu Yuanzhang, Yongle and Xuande) or those who maintained good (perhaps not as memorable) governments.
The Yongle Emperor (1360-1424)
Under the rule of Yongle (the third emperor), China reached what many historians consider to be the peak of the Ming Dynasty. Yongle (meaning "Perpetual Happiness") became widely known for being a sharp statesman, a highly educated man, and a gifted military commander. A few of his wide array of accomplishments include:
-the capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing
-repairing the Grand Canal of China
-establishing China as a successful agricultural force
-commissioning Zheng He’s famous sea voyages
Xuande (1426-1435), Chenghua (1465-1487), Honghzhi (1488-1505)
Following the reigns of Zhe Yuanzhang and Yongle, few emperors would even come close to their level of achievement. Despite the everlasting legacy of the two aforementioned emperors, Xuande's short rule was a time of good government and the arts- with notable accomplishments in ceramics and porcelain. Chenghua (1465-1487) and Honghzhi (1488-1505) also ran competent administrations. It was the emperors that succeeded them who launched the Ming Dynasty into a downward spiral of war and disorder, eventually leading to the last emperor committing suicide and the Manchus conquering the Ming Dynasty.
Why Were Emperors So Important
The way the government was structured meant that the emperors and the success of the empire went hand-in-hand, as evidenced by the respective influences of strong, powerful emperor vs a weak, ineffective emperor. The emperor had a vast spying agency and a system of punishment that they instituted to embarrass officials and ensure that the power remained in his hands. The essay below explores how emperors (and the government as a whole) affected social hierarchy, the military and naval technology:
Government in the Ming Dynasty
When Zhu Yuanzhang founded the Ming Dynasty in 1368, he established one of the most effective and stable empires in Chinese history. A man of humble origins, he was an orphan and a Buddhist novice who eventually rose to conquer the weakened Yuan dynasty during a time of chaos. He created the Ming (meaning “brilliant”) Dynasty which would continue to last until 1644, with a reign spanning sixteen emperors and notable achievements in numerous fields, especially government. The bureaucracy that Zhu Yuanzhang designed was the foundation for the thriving Ming Dynasty, but also what ultimately led to the fall of the empire. The government was centered around the emperor; when a capable emperor was at the helm then the empire would prosper, but an incompetent emperor became a big cause in the regression of the dynasty. However, the government extended far beyond the emperor, it also affected the social hierarchy and controlled the military and naval technology.
The Ming Dynasty thrived due to a stable, but autocratic government that really only functioned well if the emperor was strong and competent. The central government consisted of only the emperor and he was clearly the thread that held the entire bureaucracy together, as evidenced by the succession of rulers from 1368 to 1644. Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Ming Dynasty, utilized oppressive methods to maintain order but he was also able to increase the population, allow peasants to prosper, issue paper currency etc. Under Yongle, the third emperor, the capital was moved to Beijing, the Grand Canal of China was repaired, he established China as a successful agricultural force, he also commissioned Zheng He’s famous sea voyages etc. The short reign of Xuande (1426-35) came to be known as a golden age of the government and the arts of the Ming Dynasty. In addition, Chenghua (1465-87) and Honghzhi (1488-1505) also ran great governments, but it is the emperors that succeeded them who were weak and ineffectual. The distinguishing factor that separated ineffective and powerful rulers was their ability to promote social order and morality, proven by Zhu Yuanzhang’s An Imperial Edict Restraining Officials from Evil. In the document he states that “after I discover the truth, I capture and imprison the corrupt, villainous, and oppressive officials involved” and that ability to uphold social order and moral standards led to Yuanzhang’s (and the empire’s) success. Dishing out punishments for corruption and other evils, in the way that Yuanzhang did, allowed for a righteous, peaceful society of thriving people. The emperors who ruled through that system of “rule by law” were responsible for the prosperity of the dynasty, while emperors who failed to do so plunged the Ming Dynasty into a time of chaos, rebellion and disarray- all culminating to the eventual fall of the Ming Dynasty, thereby proving the emperors were the determinant of the success of the empire.
The government controlled and maintained the military and naval technology, which also flourished during this period. During Zhu Yuanzhang’s reign, the Chinese government formed an army of 1,000,000 warriors and ordered the creation of an expansive navy. Under Yongle’s rule, Chinese fleets were sent to distant regions to display the glory of the government. Zheng He, a Chinese diplomat and admiral, was the leader of several of these well-known expeditions. Beginning in 1405, he commanded the first of seven voyages, departing at the head of a fleet of 62 huge ships and 200 smaller ones with a crew of approximately 28,000 sailors. From 1405 to 1433, Zheng He explored a plethora of areas in that region. In The True Dates of the Chinese Maritime Expeditions in the Early Fifteenth Century (Duyvendak), Zheng He discusses these expeditions, stating that “The countries beyond the horizon and from the ends of the earth have all become subjects..We have traversed immense water spaces and have beheld in the huge ocean waves like mountains rising sky high, and we have set eyes on barbarian regions far away..” The objective of each trip was to encourage trade and collect tribute from smaller powers throughout the seas and to exhibit the strength of the empire to local rulers. However, following the death of Zheng He in 1435, the emperor of the time banned the construction of these ships. This weakened China and robbed it of that power and stability that once made it almost invincible. The government had the sole power to commission these voyages and to construct these armies- furthering their power in the dynasty and the effect of their rule on the people.
The government was also a major factor in the evolving social hierarchy during the reign of the Ming. For instance, Zhu Yuanzhang’s policies favored the peasants, considering that he was once a peasant himself and the Confucian standpoint was that merchants were “parasitic” in the empire. As a result, he implemented public work projects and attempted to distribute land to peasants in the hopes that they could live in self-supported agricultural settlements. He forced a large amount of people who were not peasants to migrate elsewhere and Zhu Yuanzhang also later declared that those who purchased fallow land under cultivation would be able to own it without having to pay taxes. This policy (amongst others) was of great help to the peasants, and as byproduct of these laws, the peasants flourished which spurred a significant increase in cultivated land and the population. Meanwhile, Zhu Yuanzhang also worked to weaken the merchant class and commanded them to pay high taxes, also relocating a substantial number of them. However, years after the end of his rule, it was the opposite that occurred. The later emperors established empires where the merchant class thrived, in addition to industry and trade. Chinese manufactured goods (namely porcelain and silk) became focal points in the worldwide trading scene, valued immensely and sold for high prices. As is visible in one of the many examples of the famed blue and white porcelain vases, they combine the mastery and sophistication of tradition with the freedom and excitement of a newly developed art form. The intricate, elaborate dragon imagery attests to the fine detail used to depict a core symbol of Chinese tradition. It is no wonder that the Ming dynasty is often associated with a majority of porcelain works created before the 20th century. All the above corroborates the fact that in the Ming, the power of the emperors and the government extended as far as determining and manipulating the dynamics of the social hierarchy.
The backbone of the Ming Dynasty comprised of the government, seeing that the government was the spine that allowed for the entire empire to function. The government had an ever-present grip on the lives of civilians and its overarching influence was a factor in many areas of life. This all began with one man, Zhu Yuanzhang, who started the construction of what would go on to be an accomplished empire that would shape Chinese history for the centuries to follow. However, it also took one emperor who committed suicide to cease the power of the Ming forever, and transfer it to the Manchus instead. Even so, many emperors ruled in that time period between those two rulers and helped solidify the Ming as a major chinese dynasty and developed a well-functioning government that would become a model for a successful bureaucracy. The government (while not without its flaws) was a complex machine that defined the Ming Dynasty and that had a hand in the military, naval technology and the social structure- a hand that either guided the entire empire along or halted its process.
-the capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing
-repairing the Grand Canal of China
-establishing China as a successful agricultural force
-commissioning Zheng He’s famous sea voyages
- Zheng He, a Chinese admiral and diplomat (also a Muslim eunuch) commanded the first of seven voyages in 1405, large-scale expeditions that would continue until 1433. He explored an immense amount of land and greatly aided the development of China and its reputation. These trips promoted trade, collected tribute from smaller powers and displayed the extent of China's strength and power to local rulers (motivating them to either ally with the Ming, or at the very least, think twice about attacking them.)
Xuande (1426-1435), Chenghua (1465-1487), Honghzhi (1488-1505)
Following the reigns of Zhe Yuanzhang and Yongle, few emperors would even come close to their level of achievement. Despite the everlasting legacy of the two aforementioned emperors, Xuande's short rule was a time of good government and the arts- with notable accomplishments in ceramics and porcelain. Chenghua (1465-1487) and Honghzhi (1488-1505) also ran competent administrations. It was the emperors that succeeded them who launched the Ming Dynasty into a downward spiral of war and disorder, eventually leading to the last emperor committing suicide and the Manchus conquering the Ming Dynasty.
Why Were Emperors So Important
The way the government was structured meant that the emperors and the success of the empire went hand-in-hand, as evidenced by the respective influences of strong, powerful emperor vs a weak, ineffective emperor. The emperor had a vast spying agency and a system of punishment that they instituted to embarrass officials and ensure that the power remained in his hands. The essay below explores how emperors (and the government as a whole) affected social hierarchy, the military and naval technology:
Government in the Ming Dynasty
When Zhu Yuanzhang founded the Ming Dynasty in 1368, he established one of the most effective and stable empires in Chinese history. A man of humble origins, he was an orphan and a Buddhist novice who eventually rose to conquer the weakened Yuan dynasty during a time of chaos. He created the Ming (meaning “brilliant”) Dynasty which would continue to last until 1644, with a reign spanning sixteen emperors and notable achievements in numerous fields, especially government. The bureaucracy that Zhu Yuanzhang designed was the foundation for the thriving Ming Dynasty, but also what ultimately led to the fall of the empire. The government was centered around the emperor; when a capable emperor was at the helm then the empire would prosper, but an incompetent emperor became a big cause in the regression of the dynasty. However, the government extended far beyond the emperor, it also affected the social hierarchy and controlled the military and naval technology.
The Ming Dynasty thrived due to a stable, but autocratic government that really only functioned well if the emperor was strong and competent. The central government consisted of only the emperor and he was clearly the thread that held the entire bureaucracy together, as evidenced by the succession of rulers from 1368 to 1644. Zhu Yuanzhang, the founder of the Ming Dynasty, utilized oppressive methods to maintain order but he was also able to increase the population, allow peasants to prosper, issue paper currency etc. Under Yongle, the third emperor, the capital was moved to Beijing, the Grand Canal of China was repaired, he established China as a successful agricultural force, he also commissioned Zheng He’s famous sea voyages etc. The short reign of Xuande (1426-35) came to be known as a golden age of the government and the arts of the Ming Dynasty. In addition, Chenghua (1465-87) and Honghzhi (1488-1505) also ran great governments, but it is the emperors that succeeded them who were weak and ineffectual. The distinguishing factor that separated ineffective and powerful rulers was their ability to promote social order and morality, proven by Zhu Yuanzhang’s An Imperial Edict Restraining Officials from Evil. In the document he states that “after I discover the truth, I capture and imprison the corrupt, villainous, and oppressive officials involved” and that ability to uphold social order and moral standards led to Yuanzhang’s (and the empire’s) success. Dishing out punishments for corruption and other evils, in the way that Yuanzhang did, allowed for a righteous, peaceful society of thriving people. The emperors who ruled through that system of “rule by law” were responsible for the prosperity of the dynasty, while emperors who failed to do so plunged the Ming Dynasty into a time of chaos, rebellion and disarray- all culminating to the eventual fall of the Ming Dynasty, thereby proving the emperors were the determinant of the success of the empire.
The government controlled and maintained the military and naval technology, which also flourished during this period. During Zhu Yuanzhang’s reign, the Chinese government formed an army of 1,000,000 warriors and ordered the creation of an expansive navy. Under Yongle’s rule, Chinese fleets were sent to distant regions to display the glory of the government. Zheng He, a Chinese diplomat and admiral, was the leader of several of these well-known expeditions. Beginning in 1405, he commanded the first of seven voyages, departing at the head of a fleet of 62 huge ships and 200 smaller ones with a crew of approximately 28,000 sailors. From 1405 to 1433, Zheng He explored a plethora of areas in that region. In The True Dates of the Chinese Maritime Expeditions in the Early Fifteenth Century (Duyvendak), Zheng He discusses these expeditions, stating that “The countries beyond the horizon and from the ends of the earth have all become subjects..We have traversed immense water spaces and have beheld in the huge ocean waves like mountains rising sky high, and we have set eyes on barbarian regions far away..” The objective of each trip was to encourage trade and collect tribute from smaller powers throughout the seas and to exhibit the strength of the empire to local rulers. However, following the death of Zheng He in 1435, the emperor of the time banned the construction of these ships. This weakened China and robbed it of that power and stability that once made it almost invincible. The government had the sole power to commission these voyages and to construct these armies- furthering their power in the dynasty and the effect of their rule on the people.
The government was also a major factor in the evolving social hierarchy during the reign of the Ming. For instance, Zhu Yuanzhang’s policies favored the peasants, considering that he was once a peasant himself and the Confucian standpoint was that merchants were “parasitic” in the empire. As a result, he implemented public work projects and attempted to distribute land to peasants in the hopes that they could live in self-supported agricultural settlements. He forced a large amount of people who were not peasants to migrate elsewhere and Zhu Yuanzhang also later declared that those who purchased fallow land under cultivation would be able to own it without having to pay taxes. This policy (amongst others) was of great help to the peasants, and as byproduct of these laws, the peasants flourished which spurred a significant increase in cultivated land and the population. Meanwhile, Zhu Yuanzhang also worked to weaken the merchant class and commanded them to pay high taxes, also relocating a substantial number of them. However, years after the end of his rule, it was the opposite that occurred. The later emperors established empires where the merchant class thrived, in addition to industry and trade. Chinese manufactured goods (namely porcelain and silk) became focal points in the worldwide trading scene, valued immensely and sold for high prices. As is visible in one of the many examples of the famed blue and white porcelain vases, they combine the mastery and sophistication of tradition with the freedom and excitement of a newly developed art form. The intricate, elaborate dragon imagery attests to the fine detail used to depict a core symbol of Chinese tradition. It is no wonder that the Ming dynasty is often associated with a majority of porcelain works created before the 20th century. All the above corroborates the fact that in the Ming, the power of the emperors and the government extended as far as determining and manipulating the dynamics of the social hierarchy.
The backbone of the Ming Dynasty comprised of the government, seeing that the government was the spine that allowed for the entire empire to function. The government had an ever-present grip on the lives of civilians and its overarching influence was a factor in many areas of life. This all began with one man, Zhu Yuanzhang, who started the construction of what would go on to be an accomplished empire that would shape Chinese history for the centuries to follow. However, it also took one emperor who committed suicide to cease the power of the Ming forever, and transfer it to the Manchus instead. Even so, many emperors ruled in that time period between those two rulers and helped solidify the Ming as a major chinese dynasty and developed a well-functioning government that would become a model for a successful bureaucracy. The government (while not without its flaws) was a complex machine that defined the Ming Dynasty and that had a hand in the military, naval technology and the social structure- a hand that either guided the entire empire along or halted its process.
Bibliography
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1."Chinese Dynasties." Nations Online. Accessed November 9, 2014. http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/Chinese_Customs/Chinese_Dynasties.htm.
2. China: Ming Dynasty (AD 1368-1644)." British Museum. Accessed November 9, 2014. http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/article_index/c/china_ming_dynasty_ad_1368-1.aspx.
3. Gaynor Ellis, Esler, Elisabeth, Anthony. World History. Boston: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. P.381.
4. Gaynor Ellis, Esler, Elisabeth, Anthony. World History. Boston: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. P.381-382.
5. Jar [China]" (37.191.1) In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/37.191.1. (October 2006)
6.The Ming Dynasty”, China Travel Guide. accessed November 9th, 2014. http://www.chinahighlights.com/travelguide/china-history/the-ming-dynasty.htm.
7. Yuanzhang Zhu. An Imperial Edict Restraining Officials from Evil (1328-1398). translated. Primary Sources with DBQs. Asia for Educators, http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/ps/china/restraining_officials.pdf. accessed November 18th, para.1.